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Sierra Battaglia Ms.Green English 1 February 13,2014 Down Syndrome It is accepted that individuals with Down Syndrome has been around for some time. In 1959 Professor Jã ©rome Lejeune demonstrated that Down's condition is a chromosomal irregularity.Parents in that time were embarrassed about their youngsters with disabilities.In 1944 children with incapacities didn't reserve the option to have training. Not until 1971 it was perceived that it ought to be legitimate for individuals with learning incapacities to get an education.Life anticipation for individuals with Down condition has increased significantly in present day decades from 25 of every 1983 to 60 today. Individuals with down disorder have an expanded hazard for certain ailments, for example, heart disease,brain decay and learning disorders.(downs-condition affiliation) Down's condition isn't a sickness and hence individuals with Down disorder don't endure nor are they survivors of their condition.Down Syndrome is a characteristic issue originating from a chromosome imperfection. It is a hereditary condition wherein an individual has 47 chromosomes rather than the standard 46. Which causes mental debilitation and physical deformity.For model short height , wide facial profile and frail muscle tone.It happens in roughly one in each 800 live births.It is the most as often as possible happening chromosomal confusion. Down condition isn't identified with race, nationality, religion or financial status.(medline in addition to) Kids with Down disorder are ordinarily littler, and their physical and mental upgrades are more slow contrasted with kids who are unaffected.Some of the physical highlights in youngsters have straightening of the rear of the head, inclining of the eyelids, little skin folds at the internal corner of the eyes, discouraged nasal scaffold, somewhat littler ears, smal... ... in positive manners, especially during immaturity. Medicines may incorporate setting off to a social pro and taking medications.(Eunice kennedy shriver national organization of youngster wellbeing and human turn of events) There is no particular treatment for down disorder. A youngster brought into the world with a gastrointestinal blockage may require significant medical procedure following birth. Or on the other hand a Certain heart deformity may require medical procedure relying upon how genuine it is. Weight can be an issue in more seasoned children or grown-ups so they have to keep dynamic however before they do so they need to get their hips and neck inspected. Conduct order can help individuals with Down disorder and their families manage the dissatisfaction, outrage, and urgent conduct that will happen. Guardians ought to figure out how to assist an individual with Down disorder manage disappointment and outrage. In spite of the fact that, it is essential to support freedom.

Discuss Austen(TM)s use of Mr Elliot in Persuasion Free Essays

Austen utilizes Mr Elliot in different manners in Persuasion, this extents from increasing an understanding into different people’s characters to adding to the sentiment sort. Austen for the most part utilizes Mr Elliot as a plot gadget in Book Two of the novel after Anne’s appearance in Bath. The utilization of Mr Elliot’s character can be integrated with the vast majority of the significant topics of the novel. We will compose a custom article test on Talk about Austen(TM)s utilization of Mr Elliot in Persuasion or on the other hand any comparative subject just for you Request Now The main notice of Mr Elliot in Persuasion is in the clench hand section of Book One. We discover that he is the beneficiary hypothetical to the Baronetcy, through Sir Walter who is perusing the Baronetage. We can see this is essential to Sir Walter as he has included, â€Å"Heir hypothetical, William Walter Elliot, Esq.† to the pages in the book alluding to the Elliot’s. This shows how class cognizant Sir Walter is, it is explicitly clear that Austen is deriding Sir Walter for being also class cognizant. Anyway later in the novel we see that while she doesn't affirm of how class cognizant Sir Walter is, Austen is as yet a lady of her time and we see that she is class cognizant, through Anne’s responses, however not to the extent that Sir Walter is. In a similar section we likewise discover progressively about Mr Elliot’s past relationship with the Elliot family, specifically with Elizabeth and Sir Walter, to a degree. We see that Mr Elliot has frustrated her, â€Å"the beneficiary hypothetical †¦ had baffled her† despite the fact that she had â€Å"found him very agreeable†. Anyway as opposed to wedding Elizabeth, Mr Elliot looked for freedom and wedded â€Å"a rich lady of mediocre birth.† This prompts all colleague between the stopping as Mr Elliot had insulted Sir Walter and had â€Å"shewn himself as unsolicitous of being longer seen by the family†. Whenever we meet Mr Elliot is in the last section of Book One, where Anne and the Musgroves are in Lyme with Captain Wentworth. This section is the place Mr Elliot sees Anne just because and where he is first observed as a potential opponent for Anne’s consideration and love, â€Å"Anne’s face got his attention, and he took a gander at her with a level of sincere admiration†. Wentworth thus sees how Mr Elliot takes a gander at Anne and even he can â€Å"see something like Anne Elliot again†. Mr Elliot focusing on Anne shows that se is indeed in â€Å"bloom†. In this section through Anne and the others in Lyme that Mr Elliot is in grieving, in this way his better half has just passed on moderately as of late. When the ‘mystery gentleman’ is distinguished as Mr Elliot by the gathering in Lyme, we see that Austen features Mary’s class pomposity. We next observe Mr Elliot in Chapter Three of Book Two, anyway the response to him is significantly more positive than it was in the main book. We see that in spite of his past complaints against them Elizabeth and Sir Walter promptly pardon Mr Elliot and are even glad to recharge their associate. In this part we see that the connection between Mr Elliot and Anne improves and we see that he is unmistakably pulled in to her. This is the place the potential for success of Mr Elliot having as an adversary against Wentworth for Anne’s expressions of love turns into a reality. In the following section Austen utilizes Mr Elliot to show how whimsical Lady Russell is. We see here that she feels that he was unable to be â€Å"a progressively pleasant or admirable man† and that â€Å"Everything joined in him; great understanding, right conclusions, information on the world, and a warm heart†. This legitimately differentiate her inclination in Chapter Fourteen where she expresses that â€Å"he is a man whom [she has] no desire to see† and that he had â€Å"left a solid impression in his disfavour† with her when he declined to be â€Å"on welcoming terms with the leader of his family†. Here we likewise observe that Mr Elliot isn't as class cognizant as Sir Walter and Elizabeth however he is more class cognizant than Anne. In the following parts Mr Elliot turns out to be significantly a greater amount of an obstruction in Anne and Wentworth’s relationship. We see what Anne’s assessment of him is; she feels that while â€Å"Mr Elliot is an exceedingly pleasing man† he was â€Å"too for the most part agreeable†. This shows how insightful Anne is, contrasted and the remainder of her family and her dear companions. Austen utilizes Mr Elliot more in the second 50% of the novel so as to occupy Anne’s consideration away from Wentworth. This can be found in Chapter Twenty during the show held to support an individual disparaged by Lady Dalrymple. We see that Mr Elliot effectively corners a great deal of Anne’s time, which thusly makes Wentworth envious. Wentworth now realizes that he is still enamored with Anne because of the consideration she is getting from Mr Elliot, yet again because of the obstruction Mr Elliot presents he can not make his emotions known to Anne. Anyway after Mrs Smith exposes Mr Elliot for Anne after the show, we recognize the truth about him. Here Wentworth and Mr Elliot can be thought about and you can plainly observe who the better individual is out of the two. Wentworth is everything that Mr Elliot isn't, for instance Wentworth is open and unconstrained while Mr Elliot is cleaned and hides his feelings. Another model where the two can be looked at is when Wentworth helps Mrs Smith when Mr Elliot abandoned her in her period of scarcity after the passing of her better half. Here Austen unmistakably needs to show the contrasts between the two characters, and it features how Wentworth is from a lower class and has made his own fortune through difficult work and how Mr Elliot stands to acquire his fortune while not in any event, being a large portion of the man Wentworth is. All in all one might say that Mr Elliot is of indispensable importance to the novel and that Austen utilizes him to facilitate the plot, particularly among Anne and Wentworth. He is utilized to show the characters and the perusers that despite the fact that he is from the privileged societies it doesn't imply that he is better than any one else. This raises the subject of the changing perfect of the respectable men in Persuasion. Austen likewise utilizes him all through the novel according to the significant topics, for instance family just as affection. The most effective method to refer to Discuss Austen(TM)s utilization of Mr Elliot in Persuasion, Papers

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Hernan Cortes Conquistador Army

In 1519, Hernan Cortes embarked upon the bold conquest of the Aztec Empire. When he ordered his ships dismantled, signifying that he was committed to his expedition of conquest, he had only about 600 men and a handful of horses. With this band of conquistadors and subsequent reinforcements, Cortes would bring down the mightiest Empire the New World had ever known. Who were Cortes Conquistadors? Most of the conquistadors who fought in Cortes army were Spaniards from Extremadura, Castile and Andalusia. These lands proved fertile breeding grounds for the sort of desperate men needed in the conquest: there was a long history of conflict and much poverty there that ambitious men sought to escape. The conquistadors were often younger sons of minor nobility who would not inherit their family estates and thus had to make a name for themselves on their own. Many such men turned to the military, because there was a constant need for soldiers and captains in Spains many wars, and advancement could be fast and rewards, in some cases, could be rich. The wealthier among them could afford the tools of the trade: fine Toledo steel swords and armor and horses.   Why did the Conquistadors Fight? There was no sort of mandatory enlistment in Spain, so no one forced any of Cortes soldiers to fight. Why, then, would a sane man risk life and limb in the jungles and mountains of Mexico against murderous Aztec warriors? Many of them did it because it was considered a good job, in a sense: these soldiers would have looked upon work as a tradesman like a tanner or a shoemaker with scorn. Some of them did it out of ambition, hoping to be gain wealth and power along with a large estate. Others fought in Mexico out of religious fervor, believing that the natives needed to be cured of their evil ways and brought to Christianity, at the point of a sword if necessary. Some did it for adventure: many popular ballads and romances came out at the time: one such example was Amadis de Gaula, a rousing adventure which tells the story of the heros quest to find his roots and marry his true love. Still others were excited by the beginnings of the golden era through which Spain was about to pass an d wanted to help make Spain a world power. Conquistador Weapons and Armor During the early parts of the conquest, conquistadors preferred arms and armor which was useful and necessary on the battlefields of Europe such as heavy steel chestplates and helms (called morions), crossbows and harquebuses. These proved less useful in the Americas: heavy armor was not necessary, as most native weapons could be defended against with thick leather or padded armor called escuapil, and crossbows and harquebuses, while effective in taking out one enemy at a time, were slow to load and heavy. Most conquistadors preferred to wear escuapil and armed themselves with fine steel Toledo swords, which could hack easily through native defenses. Horsemen found that they were effective with similar armor, lances and the same fine swords. Cortes Captains Cortes was a great leader of men, but he could not be everywhere all the time. Cortes had several captains that he (mostly) trusted: these men helped him greatly. Gonzalo de Sandoval: Only in his early twenties and not yet tested in battle when he joined the expedition, Sandoval quickly became Cortes right-hand man. Sandoval was smart, brave and loyal, three important qualities for a conquistador. Unlike Cortes other captains, Sandoval was a skilled diplomat who did not solve all problems with his sword. Sandoval always drew the most challenging assignments from Cortes and he never let him down.   Cristobal de Olid: Strong, brave, brutish and not very bright, Olid was Cortes captain of choice when he needed blunt force more than diplomacy. When supervised, Olid could lead large groups of soldiers, but had little in the way of problem-solving skills. After the conquest, Cortes sent Olid south to  conquer Honduras, but Olid went rogue and Cortes had to send another expedition after him. Pedro de Alvarado: Pedro de Alvarado is the best-known today of Cortes captains. The hotheaded Alvarado was an able captain, but impulsive, as he showed when he ordered the temple massacre in Cortes absence. After the fall of Tenochtitlan, Alvarado conquered the Maya lands to the south and even took part in the conquest of Peru. Alonso de Avila: Cortes didnt like Alonso de Avila much personally, because Avila had an annoying habit of bluntly speaking his mind, but he respected Avila and thats what counted. Avila was good in a fight, but he was also honest and had a head for figures, so Cortes made him the expeditions treasurer and put him in charge of setting aside the Kings fifth. Reinforcements Many of Cortes original 600 men died, were wounded, returned to Spain or the Caribbean or otherwise did not remain with him until the end. Fortunately for him, he received reinforcements, which always seemed to arrive when he needed them the most. In May of 1520, he defeated a larger force of conquistadors under Panfilo de Narvaez, who had been sent to rein in Cortes. After the battle, Cortes added hundreds of Narvaez men to his own. Later, reinforcements would seemingly arrive at random: for example, during the siege of Tenochtitlan, some survivors of Juan Ponce de Leons disastrous expedition to Florida sailed into Veracruz and were sent swiftly inland to reinforce Cortes. In addition, once word of the conquest (and rumors of Aztec gold) began to spread through the Caribbean, men rushed to join Cortes while there was still loot, land and glory to be had. Sources: Diaz del Castillo, Bernal. . Trans., ed. J.M. Cohen. 1576. London, Penguin Books, 1963. Print.Levy, Buddy. Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Montezuma and the Last Stand of the Aztecs. New York: Bantam, 2008.Thomas, Hugh. Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes and the Fall of Old Mexico. New York: Touchstone, 1993.

The Issues of Race in William Shakespeares Plays - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 26 Words: 7872 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Literature Essay Type Dissertation Tags: William Shakespeare Essay Did you like this example? This dissertation provides a critical discussion of the issues of race in such William Shakespeares plays as The Tempest, Titus Andronicus and Othello. Analysing the context, in which these plays are created, and applying to such theoretical tools as the qualitative research method and the social constructionist approach, the research evaluates different perceptions of race through the principal characters of the plays and investigates in depth various critical views. The received results reveal that William Shakespeare interprets the issues of race in a close connection with religious beliefs, politics and social events in Elizabethan period. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Issues of Race in William Shakespeares Plays" essay for you Create order Although some findings of the research are consistent with the previous studies, other results provide new interpretations and valid data as to the racial issues in Shakespeares plays. The issues of race constitute one of the most important themes in world-wide literature. Although in Elizabethan England the ideas of race were much ignored due to the confusion and lack of knowledge in regard to foreigners, William Shakespeare usually applied to the issues of race and racism in his plays. On the basis of such portrayal, it is clear that people of different races lived in England in those times, and that Shakespeare was aware of the complex relations between English people and foreigners. Through his characters, the dramatist uncovers the negative aspects of Elizabethan social ideologies that created a gap among races, alienating foreigners from other members of English society and contributing to their destruction. However, even today the researchers continue to dispute about the implications of race in Shakespeares plays. Some scholars maintain the notion that the differences in religions and cultures aggravated the alienation of various races in England, while oth er researchers oppose to this viewpoint, claiming that the colour of skin influenced the complex relations between Englishmen and foreigners. Thus, the issue of race is rather controversial and it should be discussed through religious, cultural, social, political and ethnic contexts in the plays of William Shakespeare. To some extent, such controversy can be explained by the fact that the race has always been utilised to substitute the established social systems for new social hierarchies that reflected their own norms and principles. In this regard, in Elizabethan times people were socially divided into one or another race, taking into account the colour of skin, religious beliefs and cultural traditions of various individuals. Another controversy concerns the origin of the word race that usually dates back to 18-19th centuries; therefore, Shakespeares researchers prefer to substitute the term race for the term otherness in their analyses of Shakespeares plays. However, such shift from one term to another term is not able to eliminate Shakespeares unique interpretation of racial issues in the selected plays. William Shakespeare wrote many of his plays in Elizabethan period, the era when, contrary to the commonly accepted view, people of various races began to arrive to England. Some recent findings provide valid evidence as to the existence of black people in the 16th-century London. In this regard, the issues of race, to which the dramatist applies in such plays as Titus Andronicus, The Tempest and Othello, provide a new vision on the impact of these races on cultural and social life of English people. At the beginning, black people were taken by force and brought to England as exotic creatures that possessed no rights, but finally they became the members of English society who were called as the Moors. However, such racial integration soon resulted in rather complex tensions among different races, and Shakespeare reflected these relations in his works. As Bernard Harris puts it, To Elizabethan Londoners the appearance and conduct of the Moors was a spectacle and an outrage, emphasising the nature of the deep difference between themselves and their visitors, between their Queen and this erring Barbarian1. Thus, English people could rarely distinguish one race from another race. However, Shakespeare, who took an active part in public life and visited various cultural and public-service institutions, had an opportunity to observe foreigners and attitude of the English towards them, depicting his observations in his literary works. In addition, Margo Hendricks claims that various economic and social changes occurred in England in the middle of the 16th century2. In particular, England established constant relations with Morocco. As a result, various merchants and military people of different races began to arrive to the country and acquire certain positions among the members of English society. All these non-English people, who arrived from Africa, Israel, Ireland, Wales, Scotland and some other places, were called as aliens or outsiders. Despite this integration, many Englishmen revealed racial biases towards these foreigners. According to Ania Loomba, Jews, Moors and Christians were never simply religious categories, but variably articulated with nationality, and ethnicity, and often colour3. Thus, on the one hand, English people accepted foreigners in their country, but, on the other hand, they treated them as outsiders, if these foreigners acquired more power and knowledge in comparison with native citizens. Various violent attacks were initiated by English people against these foreigners; such hostility was intensified by Church that pointed at the poverty of Englishmen as a result of foreigners integration into social, political, economical, religious and cultural life of English people. In this regard, English society either rejected these foreigners or forced to assimilate to them, paving the way for racism. This can be explained by the fact that Englishmen were afraid of acquiring culture and traditions of foreigners, as they became engaged in economic relations with them. As Margo Hendricks claims , Beginning in the middle ages, the English engagement with foreigners often functioned on two levels: spiritual and material4. Although Englishmen realised that they could receive material profits from their interactions with people of different races, they made everything to preserve their superior position. It was in this environment of racial tensions and complex relations that William Shakespeare created such plays as The Tempest, Titus Andronicus and Othello. The aim of this dissertation is to analyse the representation of race in the selected Shakespeares plays on the basis of different perceptions and viewpoints. The research is divided into sections. Chapter 1 presents a statement of the problem that reveals the core of the analysis. Chapter 2 provides a general overview of the issue, observing the context, in which the plays are produced. Chapter 3 offers a survey of the works that have been written on the issues of race in Shakespeares plays. Chapter 4 points at the research methods that constitute a theoretical basis for the conducted analysis. Drawing upon earlier findings and evidence, Chapter 5 observes in detail the issues of race in such plays as The Tempest, Titus Andronicus and Othello. Chapter 6 makes a summarisation of the results, while Chapter 7 stresses on the limitations of the dissertation and provides some suggestions for further research. Due to various controversies and ambiguities that emerge during the analysis of William Shakespeares plays, the researchers provide different interpretations of the dramatists portrayal of race. For instance, Hunter points at the impact of the existing religious and cultural norms on the attitude of Englishmen towards foreigners in Elizabethan times5. Thus, the researcher considers that Shakespeares plays reflect the spirit of that period and relations among various races. Although some viewpoints of Hunter are of considerable interest to understanding of Shakespeares presentation of race, his analysis is limited only to the religious explanation of racial differences. Hunter pays no attention to social and cultural changes that occurred in England in the 16-17th century, shaping the relations between Englishmen and foreigners. In his analysis Hunter suggests that Elisabeth had rare contacts with foreigners, but this is not really true, if taken into account her edicts that she issue d at the end of the 16th century, according to which foreigners had to be expelled from England. This fact points at Elisabeths awareness of foreigners and her fear of them; however, on the other hand, the Queen continued to admit black people to her court and, to some extent, supported the spread of slavery. More contradictory findings are presented in regard to individual Shakespeares plays. Discussing the moorishness of Shakespeares play Othello, Barbara Everett provides a challenge to [our] perhaps too simple African sense of Othello6. Everett claims that the dramatist wants to uncover racial tensions in the 16-century England, thus Othello is, in short, the colour the fiction dictatesthe Moor may be quite as much Spanish as African7. In this regard, Everett applies to the discussion of political, religious and social contexts of Elizabethan period in her interpretation of racial issues. Virginia Mason Vaughn regards Othellos blackness as the reflection of his otherness, as she states, The effect of Othello depends on the essential fact of the heros darkness, the visual signifies of his Otherness8. While Arthur Little points out that Othellos tragedy can be explained not only by his different race, but also by his marriage to Desdemona, a white female, and by his jealousy9. Davison goes further in his analysis of Shakespeares play, in particular, he suggests that Othello is not about race, or colour, or even jealousy. It dramatises the way actions are directed by attitudes, fears, and delusions that rule the subconscious than by evident facts10. Analysing Shakespeares play The Tempest, Curt Breight points out that in this work the dramatists portrayal of race reveals colonialism and terror of James I, thus Prosperos attempt to achieve the superior position over other people is a simple reflection of Kings actions11. Paul Brown expresses the similar opinion in regard to the play, claiming that The Tempest interferes into colonialism, and this intervention takes the form of a powerful and pleasurable narrative which seeks at once to harmonize disjunction, to transcend irreconcila ble contradictions and to mystify the political conditions which demand colonialist discourse12. Further, Brown points at the fact that Calibans rape and assault are explained by his intensified sexuality that was considered to be a characteristic feature of Indians and other races, except white people. Thus, Prosperos control over Caliban reveals the suppression of Calibans sexuality as well. William Shakespeares play Titus Andronicus has been considered as his most unsuccessful literary work for a long time; however, the inability of researchers to understand this play can be explained by the fact that Titus Andronicus is rather ambiguous and doesnt conform to a particular classification. Here, Shakespeare interprets the racial issues in their connections with religious beliefs of Romans and provides two-fold vision on morality of both civilised people and barbarians. Charles Martindale and Michelle Martindale point at Senecas influence on this play, uncovering the dramatists utilisation of classical sources and claiming that Seneca was the closest Shakespeare ever got to Greek tragedy13. Although all these critical works provide different interpretations of Shakespeares plays, taken in integrity, they generate rather accurate data. This dissertation applies to two research methods a qualitative research method and a social constructionist approach. As crucial theoretical research tools, these methods provide an opportunity to discuss the issues of race in Shakespeares plays through various perceptions and viewpoints. The qualitative method is aimed at analysing different interpretations of race, generating valid data that have been rarely mentioned in the earlier studies. According to Taylor, Interpretation is an attempt to make sense of an object of study. This object must, therefore, be a text, which in some way is confused, incomplete, cloudy, seemingly contradictory14. Drawing upon certain qualitative data, the research uncovers controversial arguments in regard to the discussed issue and evaluates cultural and social events in Elizabethan times. The principal sources are taken from various literary texts and critical researches on Shakespeare. The social constructionist approach allows to investigate soci al, cultural and historical contexts of the period, in which Shakespeares plays are created. This approach is especially appropriate for this research, as the term race is regarded as a social construction phenomenon. This means that the social constructionist approach challenges the conventional biological interpretation of race, evaluating race through the social perspective. Thus, the method provides a basis for analysing the unity between race and social environment in Elizabethan era. 5.1. The issue of Moorishness in Shakespeares play Othello Although many contemporary critics and playwrights make attempts to disregard the issue of race in Shakespeares play Othello, the dramatist himself considers this aspect to be crucial for understanding his characters. The principal protagonist Othello belongs to the race of the Moors, and as Everett points out, moorishness was a condition that had a meaning, for Shakespeare and his audiences once casually familiar though long lost to us15. According to Barbara Everett, the word Moor is thought to originate from mauri who lived in Mauritania province in North Africa16, but English people preferred to apply this term to all foreigners who differed from them either in race or religious beliefs. As Emily Bartels claims, the Moor was usually associated with similarly ambiguous terms as African, Ethiopian, Negro and even Indian17, because the origin of the Moors was rather ambiguous, either the mixture of Berber and Arab or Muslim. In this regard, when Shakespeare calls Othello a Black Moor, he accentuates the blackness of the principal hero, because the Moors were both white and black. By presenting the black character, the dramatist uncovers the existence of racism in the 16-century England and reveals his awareness of the complex relations between black and white people. According to Harris, When Shakespeare chose, for this audience, to present a Moor as his hero, he was simply more aware than his contemporaries of the co mplex pattern made by white and black18. Othello demonstrates the biases of English people, in general, and Queen Elizabeth, in particular, towards the Moors. For them, black colour of these people symbolised evil and disaster. Thus, as Margo Hendricks claims, In the writing of the day, the Moors were described as subtle, stubborn, bestial and intolerant19. Othellos blackness emerges as a result of his relations with other people who reveal certain biases towards this protagonist. Roderigo claims him a wheeling stranger20 with thick lips, gross clasps of a lascivious Moor21. Iago evaluates Othello through his racial biases, pointing out that jealousy and sexuality are characteristic features of the Moors. As Edward Berry states, Othellos moorishness is not only a mark of his physical alienation but a symbol, to which every character in the play, himself included, must respond22. Brabantio also expresses his negative attitude towards Othello, claiming that he is disappointed with Desdemona who fall in love with what she feard to look on23. Desdemona herself seems to reveal certain racial biases to the person she loves. Othellos words admire Desdemona, but she is not physically attracted to him. Such prejudic es prevent her from understanding Othello who is obsessed with beauty of Desdemona. By contrasting black and white, the dramatist simultaneously uncovers the complex relations between two races, revealing that cultural differences may result in tragedy. On the other hand, such shift from whiteness to blackness or vice versa reflects the elements of racial attitude of Venetian people towards Othello. This can be explained by the fact that the Queen was obsessed with white colour, proclaiming it as a colour of goodness and virginity, while black colour was considered as a colour of evil and dirt. Such attitude resulted in the creation of the complex racial tensions between Englishmen and black people. For instance, almost all characters of Shakespeares play avoid calling Othello by name; instead they constantly address him as the Moor, implicitly rejecting him as the member of their society. Thus, Othello is treated as an object because of the racial differences between him and other members of Venetian society. This viewpoint can be explained by the social constructi onist approach, according to which society initially establishes some norms and principles, and further it applies these rules towards certain personalities. Othello makes constant attempts to integrate into this society, but it turns away from him. Despite the fact that he possesses some values and the rank of a general, society is not able to overcome its racial prejudices. As Everett puts it, Othello is almost any colour one pleases, so long as it permits his easier isolation and destruction by his enemies and by himself24. In this regard, interpreting the racial issues of the play, Everett points at political and social situations in the country in the 16th century. In particular, moorishness of Othello may reveal his position as a foreigner, a person who differs from the rest of population and who is regarded as a damnable creature. According to Hunter, Elizabethans awareness of foreigners was closely conditioned by a traditional religious outlook on the world25. Therefore, the attempts were made to reduce the position of these people in society. In fact, Othello excels many respectable members of society, and he sincerely believes i n the beginning that My parts, my title, and my perfect soul / Shall manifest me rightly26. But racial prejudices appear too powerful, destroying Othellos intentions to achieve an appropriate place. Iago is the first person who rises against Othello, trying to prove that such people are dangerous for the existing social norms. As he claims to Desdemonas father, Even now, now, very now, an old black ram / Is tupping your white ewe27. As a result, Brabantios initial attitude towards Othello is greatly changed under such racist words. He tries to prove that Othello has utilised some spell to make his daughter marry him. Such action reveals that in those times the Moors were regarded as people engaged in mysterious and awful affairs. Thus, the only reason for Brabantios accusation is Othellos blackness. Although Othello seems to initially win the respect of Brabantio, Desdemona and some other people by protecting Venice society from Turks invasion, such racial prejudices do not allow them to accept Othello as equal to them. Despite the fact that they admire his courage and romantic nature, they are unable to admire him when society reveals its rejection towards Othello. As a result, racism, inspired by Iago, destroys both Othello and Desdemona. Their racial differences appear too powerful and they prevent these characters from understanding each other. In this regard, Shakespeare seems to oppose to the existing social system and ideologies that are based on the principles of superiority. Othello, who is only racially different from other members of society, is regarded as inferior to them, and it is racism of these people that causes the characters destruction. The ideologies of Elizabethan England were aimed at establishing such social norms that regarded other races as inhuman. Othellos alienation occurs because of these social standards that shape the attitude of society towards certain individuals. The qualitative research method demonstrates that a literary text usually reflects cultural and social contexts of a certain period28; this is just the case with Shakespeares play, in which the dramatist portrays his characters of different races thro ugh specific contexts. Shakespeare reveals that, on the one hand, Othellos military achievements allow him to socialise with the members of the upper class, but, on the other hand, the characters blackness deprives him of the possibility to belong to this society. Such racial attitude of people negatively influences Othello who starts to experience uncertainty about his social stand. This uncertainty is aggravated when he decides to marry a white female who belongs to the upper class. Gradually, Othello becomes obsessed with jealousy and doubts and acts like a real animal, forgetting his noble manners. Therefore, racism gradually destroys the protagonist and reveals the hate of such people as Iago to people of other races. Iago makes everything to alienate Othello from Desdemona, Brabantio and other members of the upper class, changing peoples attitude towards Othello with his racist words. Although at the beginning of the play, Iagos wife Emilia doesnt express her attitude to Othello, she explicitly reveals her racist views after Desdemonas murder when she claims: O, the more angel she, / And you the blacker devil!29. Further Emilia calls Othello as ignorant as dirt30; this comparison allows Shakespeare to show the attitude of white people towards the black race. Like Othello, dirt is black, and dirt is thrown away, because it is nasty. Many people in Shakespear es play have the similar opinion of Othello, alienating from him and implicitly revealing their xenophobic nature. They even provide Othello with hot temper and increased sexuality. To some extent, such viewpoint is explained by the fact that Englishmen identified black people with the son of Noah who was punished for seeing his father naked and with Islamic religious traditions of polygamy. In this regard, William Shakespeare manages to realistically portray society of his time that rejects any person who belongs to a different race or adheres to different religious beliefs. 5.2. Racism and social domination in The Tempest Although Caliban, the character of Shakespeares play The Tempest, is not really black, he also experiences alienation because of his race. His mother comes from North Africa and is considered of Berber origin, thats why many white people, who appear on the Caribbean island, express racial attitude towards Caliban. As a result, this protagonist is usually regarded as a devil and inferior to other characters. For instance, Prospero teaches Caliban the ways to live in the island; however, then he starts to treat Caliban as a poisonous slave [and] devil31, considering this vulgar barbarian as a threat to Miranda. In this regard, Prospero implicitly reveals the existing stereotypes of the 16th-century when people with black colour of skin were thought to possess intensified sexuality, thus marriages between a black male and a white female were rarely accepted in European society. It is clear that such notion is greatly exaggerated, but Christian laws and moral principles of those times were rather strict, opposing to each display of otherness. Due to the fact that Calibans origin is not clearly identified in the play, the character falls under the category of otherness, performing a subordinate role throughout Shakespeares narration. On the other hand, Caliban is important to Prospero who mentions to Miranda that they cannot miss him. He does make our fire, / Fetch in our wood, and serves in offices / That profit us32. These words prove that colonisation initiated by English people and utilisation of black population for their own benefits were crucial for England. Colonisation allowed the country to overcome many economic difficulties, such as unemployment and hunger, increasing Englands power among other European countries. Therefore, English colonisers utilised various measures to control these black people; however, Shakespeare reveals that Caliban doesnt want to accept such treatment, he considers himself as the original owner of this place. Before the arrival of Prospero and Miranda to the island, Caliban is really perceived as a king, but the attempt of Prospero to civilise Caliban transforms the character into a slave. As Caliban states, Thou strokst me and make much of me / and then I lovd thee, / And sh owd thee all the qualities othisle / For I am all the subjects you have, which first was mine own king33. Prospero makes an attempt to create a hierarchical structure in the island, according to which people are divided into superior and inferior on the basis of their race and position. Such behaviour of Prospero proves that the involvement of English people in slavery began in the middle of the 16th century when Englishmen realised the benefits of slavery, failing to understand the negative impact of this superiority on black people. For instance, finding himself in close relations with white people, Caliban starts to feel alienation in the place he lives. According to Ric Allsopp, Prosperos dominance over Caliban reveals the social structure that existed in England in that period and that deprived foreigners of the possibility to lead normal lives under racial prejudices34. Colonisation of the island aggravates these biases and provides Prospero with an opportunity to receive power over the islanders. As MacDonald puts it, representations of racial identity and difference, similarly matter and show in early modern English literature, [are] itself the product of an age of slavery and colonial displacement35. By applying to such claims as Providence Divine36, Prospero implicitly points at the fact that he has a control over the island and its inhabitants37. However, Caliban states that it is his mother who controlled the island and further transferred this right to Caliban. In this regard, Prospero, utilising various magic tricks, takes a control over the islanders by brute force, putting its inhabitants into positions of slaves38. In o rder to avert peoples attention from this control, Prospero claims that Caliban has tried to rape his daughter, simultaneously revealing the stereotypic vision on barbarians. But some critics consider this accusation as Prosperos attempt to conceal his violent actions in regard to Caliban and other native people39. Thus, it is no wonder that Caliban rises against Prospero and his control; however, finally Prospero suppresses this assault, proving that white people are superior and more powerful than people of other races. Society is considered to exist on the basis of two ways of interaction: subjugation and mutual interchange of profits. In the case of Shakespeares play The Tempest, the relations between two races are based on subjugation that allows Prospero, as the member of a more powerful racial group, to enslave Caliban and other native inhabitants and utilise them for his own benefits. As a result, a race of white people appears in a more advantageous position than a race of the colonised black people. It is clear that their relations are not based on mutual interchange, thats why the members of the second group are deprived of their freedom, forme r life and cultural roots. However, by the end of the play Prospero realises that on a long-term basis such kind of relations can result in many negative consequences for both interacted groups. Therefore, despite the fact that Caliban usually acts as a barbarian black savage, Shakespeare reveals that, to some extent, Calibans actions are justified. When white people arrive to the island, where he lives and where he is thought to be a king, and deprive him of his rights and freedom, he rises against such subordinate position. Caliban, who collides with another culture and another race for the first time, is unable to understand the difference between these white people and native inhabitants. But for Prospero the difference is obvious; Prospero, Trinculo and other white people regard Caliban as a monster, and Trinculo even thinks of taking this beast to England and demonstrating him in specific shows. These shows were rather popular and beneficial for the countrys economy in the 16th century, as people of diff erent races, mainly Indians or the Moors, were shown to English audience for a certain fee. As Caliban understands that Prospero transforms him into a slave, he opposes him by claiming: I am subject to a tyrant, a sorcerer that by his cunning hath cheated me of the island40. As Prospero makes an attempt to civilise Caliban, his major aim is to suppress Calibans nature and make the character serve him. Such dominance over wild inhabitants reflects the attitude of Europeans towards these people of different race. This attitude is especially obvious from the following words of Miranda, Prosperos daughter: Thy vile race / Though thou didst learn had that int which good natures / Could not abide to be with; therefore wast thou / Deservedly confined into this rock, / Who hadst deserved more than a prison41. Such judgement reveals serious racial prejudices; it is clear that Caliban is not able to withstand such attitude, and his rape of Miranda and his assault against Prospero are direct consequences of this racist treatment. However, Prospero manages to stifle a rebellion and change his attitude towards these black people. He leaves the island and releases Caliban. Such actions reveal Shakespeares views on colonisation and race; the dramatist proves that the relations among different races should be based on mutual benefits and freedom. But if one race suppresses another race, this suppression will finally result in the destruction of both races. Despite the fact that Caliban acquires the language and manners of the colonisers, they do not change his nature, because racial attitude, suppression and enslavement deprive Caliban of adopting these norms. Simultaneously, these actions deprive Prospero of establishing good relations with native inhabitants, instead inspiring hatred in them. But as Prospero provides freedom to Caliban, he also achieves inner freedom and understanding of other people. 5.3. Interpretation of race in Titus Andronicus Similar to Othello, Aaron, one of the characters of Shakespeares play Titus Andronicus, also belongs to the race of the Moors and is portrayed as a black person. But, unlike Othello, this protagonist confirms to the stereotypic representation of a black villain who claims that If one good deed in all my life I did / I do repent it to my very soul42. Being the lover of Queen of the Goths, Aaron manages to ruin the Andronicii, as well as Titus Andronicus. Like Othello, he is also regarded as a devil, a symbol of evil and destruction. However, Aaron differs from Othello in many ways; above all, Aaron, this barbarous Moor43, applies to various actions and tricks in order to intensify his social position. But as Bartels puts it, although Aaron has the freedom and ability to manipulate and maneuver close to the court circle, he is still an underlying servant with no possible avenue for advancement44. Aaron himself understands that his appearance and race are serious obstacles to his accept ance in society, thats why he wants to seclude himself from others and to bring [his son] up / To be a warrior and command a camp45. As a result, Aarons son manages to survive, while Aaron is murdered by Lucious, because Aaron is considered to be an absolute evil that deserves death. In this regard, Othello appears to perform a certain role in society, while Aarons position comes to simple adjustment to the existing environment. Therefore, contrary to Othello, the Moors in this play are presented as false and unfaithful. Both Aaron and his Moor lover deceive Titus and make him apply to cruelty in regard to his own family. But the character of Aaron is important for interpreting the issues of race; in particular, through Aaron the dramatist uncovers the connection between religion and race. Shakespeare reveals that due to his race Aaron is not able to express sincere religious beliefs, and in Roman society, similar to English society, unbelievers are excluded from its members. Thus, interpretation of race in Titus Andronicus differs from Shakespeares portrayal of racial differences in Othello and The Tempest. In this play people are divided into superior and inferior on the basis of their religious beliefs, but not on the basis of the colour of skin. In this regard, rather civilised citizens of Rome usually act in barbarous ways, if their religion or moral principles require them to turn to such actions. For instance, Romans conduct a religious murder of Tamoras son; although Titus considers this sacrifice fair, according to their religious beliefs, Tamora regards this murder as sadistic and dishonest. But, despite Tamoras appeal to Titus, he kills Alarbus, claiming that Die he must, to appease [the] groaning shadows that are gone46. As a result, Tamora decides to take revenge on Titus for her sons murder, thus such devotion to religious traditions inspire hatred and murders throughout Titus Andronicus. On the other hand, Shakespeare reveals that Tamora and Aarons race as the Moors brings destruction to everyone and everything around them. Contrary to Othello and The Tempest, in this play black people are portrayed as revengeful, villainous and sly. For instance, when two sons of Tamora fall in love with Lavinia, Aaron suggests that they rape the girl in a secluded place. Demetrius and Chiron follow his advice, harming Lavinia. Tamora also resorts to cunning to achieve her personal goals. Although she marries Saturninus, the emperor, she remains a lover of Aaron, dreaming of the times, when they will be wreathed in each others arms / [and] possess a golden slumber47. During these meetings Aaron acknowledges that he constantly thinks of vengeance and blood. When Tamora gives birth to a child and understands that he is also a Moor, she wants to kill him on order to conceal the truth from Saturninus, but Aaron wants to save his son. He kills the witnesses and replaces his son by a whit e child. Aaron brings his baby to the Goths, but when they are captured by the Romans, he decides to uncover all secrets for his sons freedom. This sudden goodness is unusual for Aaron the Moor who, unlike Tamora, turns to cruel actions throughout the play, because of his evil disposition. Although Tamora is also evil inside, she has a reason for her revenge, but Aaron has no motive for his actions. By portraying different races in Titus Andronicus and revealing their thirst for vengeance and blood, Shakespeare demonstrates that in reality there is no difference among races. Although many characters of the play act, according to certain motives or principles, all of them experience racial prejudices towards each other. According to the qualitative research method, social reality is created by a certain nation that may either inspire or suppress racial tensions48. In regard to Titus Andronicus, the Goths and the Romans alternately achieve dominance over each other. However, these relations, si milar to Shakespeares play The Tempest, are based on racial superiority and are aggravated by cruelty and vengeance from both sides. The dramatist reveals that in society, where honour principles (like in the Romans) or principles of revenge (like in the Goths) are more powerful than any laws or moral norms, people usually turn to violence and destruction. In this regard, biological differences among these races are unimportant, because people in the play act, according to the established traditions or personal desires. Although Titus considers that he acts rightfully in conquering other nations, he follows his mean wishes to achieve superiority over other races. In this pursuit of power and supremacy, Titus turns to cruelty that cant be justified, as Saturninus claims, What hast thou done, unnatural and unkind49. Similarly, Tamora and Aarons revenge cant be vindicated, whatever are their motives. Finally, all these characters fail and destroy each other, proving that racial relatio ns should be based on mutual benefits and forgiveness, or otherwise they will destroy both races. Religious beliefs and moral values of Titus result in tragedy for many people, because Titus is completely devoted to Rome and its laws, as Tamora claims, Rome is but a wilderness of tigers50. As a result, Titus, a noble person, is no better than Aaron, the Moor, as both characters turn to revenge and violence. The research has investigated in depth the issues of race in William Shakespeares plays The Tempest, Titus Andronicus and Othello. The received results show that under Elizabethan ruling the racial differences between English people and other races were rather complicated, resulting in the formation of racism. In Othello the principal character, who belongs to the Moors, is constantly ignored and rejected by society because of his race. In this regard, Shakespeare uncovers the racist views of society, in which he lived, opposing to the prejudices and social ideologies of Elizabethan period. Applying to the issues of race, the dramatist challenges the cultural dominance of society over other races. Despite the fact that Othello and some other Shakespeares black characters are not really wicked, they appear in subordinate positions and are regarded as animals or slaves. Finally, all these characters fail by the end of the discussed plays; it is this failure that provides Shakespeares p lays with much realism and makes them understandable for modern audience, because the dramatist applies to those racial issues that are crucial for contemporary world. However, Shakespeares interpretation of these racial issues differs in each of three discussed play. In particular, in Othello it is the protagonists blackness that makes other members of society reject him and bring to destruction, while in Titus Andronicus racial differences are connected with religious differences, resulting in tragedies for many involved people. In this play Shakespeare reveals that a civilised behaviour of a white person may be regarded as cruel and barbarous by a black person. In this regard, Shakespeare eliminates the differences among races, pointing out that these differences are invented and depend on many other factors rather than on a simple biological distinction. The dramatist demonstrates how the creation of certain ideologies and beliefs in Rome, similar to ideologies in England, allowed the rulers to justify their cruel decisions and subjugation of other races. In the play The Tempest colonisation uncovers the possibilities for white people to occupy superior positions over black people, transforming these native inhabitants into slaves. The relations between Caliban and Prospero demonstrate the threat of an absolutist ruling that inspires racial tensions and intensifies imperial power of white people. However, by the end of the play Prospero and other colonisers understand that the relations among races should be based on mutual help and freedom, thus Prospero decides to free Caliban and the island. Throughout the narration Prospero makes constant attempts to suppress and change the behaviour of native inhabitants, to force them adhere to his morality, beliefs and norms, but when this pressure results in the serious rebellion, Prospero realises that his actions are wrong and his dreams are utopian. Although colonisation and enslavement of black people seemed beneficial for European countries, Shakespeares play reveals that in reality nativ e inhabitants are unable or refuse to adhere to European ideals and Christian religion. Thus, the dramatists portrayal of people of different races is rather ambiguous and controversial, complicating the understanding of Shakespeares views on the issues of race. However, despite this ambiguity, William Shakespeare clearly demonstrates that racial tensions result in many negative consequences for every involved race. Applying to the qualitative research method and the social constructionist approach, the received findings suggest that Shakespeares interpretation of race in Elizabethan times moves away from a traditional biological distinction and instead points at religious and social differentiation. In other words, in the 16th-17th centuries people in England were divided into Englishmen and foreigners; the latter group was mainly alienated from the rest of English society because of different cultures, different religious beliefs and different moral norms. However, Shakespeare reveals that the colour of their skin served only as a prerequisite for inspiring complex racial tensions and acquiring superior positions over foreigners. Although the research has covered many aspects of racial issues in the selected plays by William Shakespeare, the dissertations has a certain limitation. In particular, the paper has restricted its research to only three Shakespeares plays, The Tempest, Titus Andronicus and Othello, while the issue of race is also mentioned in other of his works, especially comedies. Taking into account this limitation, some suggestions for further research may be proposed. Despite the fact that the dissertation has evaluated different contradictory viewpoints on races in Elizabethan times, it is crucial, as Margo Hendricks puts it, that the framework of assumptions about foreigners had to be expanded51. It is also important to broaden the areas of research, concerning the differences in representing black male and female characters, as this aspect is poorly analysed in this dissertation. However, various gender theories are needed for such a profound analysis of gender roles. 1. Bernard Harris, A Portrait of a Moor, in Shakespeare and Race, ed. by Catherine M. S. Alexander and Stanley Wells (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp.23-36 (p.35). 2. Margo Hendricks, Surveying Race in Shakespeare, in Shakespeare and Race, ed. by Catherine M. S. Alexander and Stanley Wells (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp.1-22 (pp.15-21). 3. Anita Loomba, Delicious Traffic: Racial and Religious Difference on Early Modern Stages, in Shakespeare and Race, ed. by Catherine M. S. Alexander and Stanley Wells (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp.203-215 (p.210). 4. Hendricks, p.4. 5. G.K. Hunter, Elizabethans and Foreigners, in Shakespeare and Race, ed. by Catherine M. S. Alexander and Stanley Wells (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 37-63 (pp.40-47). 6. Barbara Everett, Spanish Othello: The Making of Shakespeares Moor, in Shakespeare and Race, ed. by Catherine M. S. Alexander and Stanley Wells (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 64-81 (pp.78-79). 7. Everett, pp.72-73. 8. Virgina Mason Vaughan, Othello: A Contextual History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p.51. 9. Arthur, Jr. Little, An Essence Thats Not Seen: The Primal Scene of Racism in Othello, Shakespeare Quarterly 44 (1993), pp. 304-324 (p.306). 10 P. Davison, Othello: An Introduction to the Variety of Criticism (Hampshire: Macmillan Press, 1988), p.64. 11. Curt Breight, Treason Doth Never Prosper: The Tempest and the Discourse of Treason, Shakespeare Quarterly 41(1990), pp.1-28 (pp.10-15). 12. Paul Brown, This Thing of Darkness I Acknowledge Mine: The Tempest and the Discourse of Colonialism, in Political Shakespeare: New Essays in Cultural Materialism, ed. by Jonathan Dollimore and Alan Sinfield (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985), pp.48-41 (p.46). 13. Charles Martindale and Michelle Martindale, Shakespeare and the Uses of Antiquity: an Introductory Essay (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 44. 14. C. Taylor, Hermeneutics and Politics, in Critical Sociology, Selected Readings, ed. by P. Connerton (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd, 1976), pp.153-193 (p.153). 15. Everett, p.66. 16. Everett, pp.64-67. 17. Emily C. Bartels, Making More of the Moor: Aaron, Othello, and Renaissance Refashionings of Race, Shakespeare Quarterly 41.4 (1990), pp.433-452 (p.434). 18. Harris, p.35. 19. Hendricks, p.3. 20. William Shakespeare, Othello, ed. by E. A. J. Honigmann (Surrey: Thomas Nelson Sons Ltd., 1997), 1.1.136. 21. Shakespeare, Othello, 1.1.126. 22. Edward Berry, Othellos Alienation, Studies in English Literature 30.2 (1990), pp.315-34 (p.318). 23. Shakespeare, Othello, 1.3.98. 24. Everett, p.72. 25. Hunter, p.51. 26. Shakespeare, Othello, 1.2.31-32. 27. Shakespeare, Othello, 1.1.87-88. 28. A Strauss, Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp.12-17. 29. Shakespeare, Othello, 5.2.134-135. 30. Shakespeare, Othello, 5.2.164. 31. William Shakespeare, The Tempest, ed. by Frank Kermode (London: Methuen, 6th ed., 1980), I.2.318. 32. Shakespeare, The Tempest, I.2.311313. 33. Shakespeare, The Tempest, I.2.334-354. 34. Ric Allsopp, Tempest(s), in The Tempest and Its Travels, ed. by P. Hulme and W. Sherman (London: Reaction Books, 2000), pp.162-167 (pp.163-165). 35. Joyce Green MacDonald, Race, Ethnicity, and Power in the Renaissance (Cranbury, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1997), p.7. 36. Shakespeare, The Tempest, 1.1.159. 37. Stephen Orgel, Introduction, in The Tempest, The Oxford Shakespeare (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp.1-87 (p.36). 38. Brown, p.109. 39. Brown, pp.61-62; Orgel, p.41; Breight, p.10. 40. Shakespeare, The Tempest, 3.2.40-42. 41. Shakespeare, The Tempest, I.2.357-359. 42. William Shakespeare, Titus Andronicus, ed. by Eugene M. Waith (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 5.3.188189. 43. Shakespeare, Titus Andronicus, 2.3.78. 44. Bartels, p.449. 45. Shakespeare, Titus Andronicus, 4.2.181-82. 46. Shakespeare, Titus Andronicus, 1.1.125-126. 47. Shakespeare, Titus Andronicus, 2.3.25-26. 48. P. Berger and T. Luckman, The Social Construction of Reality: a Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Penguin Publishers, 1967), pp. 24-30. 49. Shakespeare, Titus Andronicus, 5.3.48. 50. Shakespeare, Titus Andronicus, 3.1.54 51. Hendricks, p. 4. Allsopp, Ric, Tempest(s), in The Tempest and Its Travels, ed. by P. Hulme and W. Sherman (London: Reaction Books, 2000), pp.162-167. Bartels, Emily C., Making More of the Moor: Aaron, Othello, and Renaissance Refashionings of Race Shakespeare Quarterly 41.4 (1990), 433-452. Berger, P. and Luckman, T., The Social Construction of Reality: a Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Penguin Publishers, 1967). Berry, Edward, Othellos Alienation, Studies in English Literature 30.2 (1990), 315-34. Breight, Curt, Treason Doth Never Prosper: The Tempest and the Discourse of Treason, Shakespeare Quarterly 41(1990), 1-28. Brown, Paul, This Thing of Darkness I Acknowledge Mine: The Tempest and the Discourse of Colonialism, in Political Shakespeare: New Essays in Cultural Materialism, ed. by Jonathan Dollimore and Alan Sinfield (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985), pp.48-71. Davison, P., Othello: An Introduction to the Variety of Criticism (Hampshire: Macmillan Press, 1988). Everett, Barbara, Spanish Othello: The Making of Shakespeares Moor, in Shakespeare and Race, ed. by Catherine M. S. Alexander and Stanley Wells (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp.64-81. Harris, Bernard, A Portrait of a Moor, in Shakespeare and Race, ed. by Catherine M. S. Alexander and Stanley Wells (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp.23-36. Hendricks, Margo, Surveying Race in Shakespeare, in Shakespeare and Race, ed. by Catherine M. S. Alexander and Stanley Wells (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp.1-22. Hunter, G.K., Elizabethans and Foreigners, in Shakespeare and Race, ed. by Catherine M. S. Alexander and Stanley Wells (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp.37-63. Little, Arthur, Jr., An Essence Thats Not Seen: The Primal Scene of Racism in Othello, Shakespeare Quarterly 44 (1993), 304-324. Loomba, Anita, Delicious Traffic: Racial and Religious Difference on Early Modern Stages, in Shakespeare and Race, ed. by Catherine M. S. Alexander and Stanley Wells (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp.203-215. MacDonald, Joyce Green, Race, Ethnicity, and Power in the Renaissance (Cranbury, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1997). Orgel, Stephen, Introduction, The Tempest, The Oxford Shakespeare (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp.1-87. Shakespeare, William, Othello, ed. by E. A. J. Honigmann (Surrey: Thomas Nelson Sons Ltd., 1997). Shakespeare, William, Titus Andronicus, ed. by Eugene M. Waith (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998). Shakespeare, William, The Tempest, ed. by Frank Kermode (London: Methuen, 6th ed., 1980). Strauss, A., Qualitative Analysis for Social Scientists (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). Taylor, C., Hermeneutics and Politics, in Critical Sociology, Selected Readings, ed. by P. Connerton (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd, 1976), pp.153-193. Vaughan, Virgina Mason, Othello: A Contextual History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).

Global Media and Constructivism Free Essays

Global Media and Constructivism Media globalization plays a significant role in the global culture. It can be very convenient for people in different countries to exchange information. Also, the exchange of trade and products between the countries has become convenient and simple too. We will write a custom essay sample on Global Media and Constructivism or any similar topic only for you Order Now Nowadays, the rapid changes in technology have been increased to a new media platform, so the evolution of media is important to explore. From my view point, the globalization of media leads to better-informed citizens. Moreover, I agree with the statement that global media contributes to the creation of a global village because it can help share cultures, and constructivists can investigate global change and transformation. But the global village also has some disadvantages, like problems with political control of the media. Media globalization cannot be stopped. It is a result of new communications technology, and it is also the prerequisite and facilitator for all other forms of globalization. Because of new technology, such as the growth of satellite broadcasting, phone system and cross-border advertising, the way people accept information has changed. At first, people get information from newspapers and books, and then it evolved into the computer and Internet. The spread of the Internet and global communications media has expanded our information society into a global information society, and the one aspect of the globalization of the media is the multinational media company and market dominance. So, some people think that without mass media there would be no contemporary consumer society which means no globalization. In short, the media network cannot survive without the technological innovation. In addition, the media evolved from single to multiple, from national to the global, and also from developed areas to underdeveloped areas. Some people believe that the globalization of media does not lead to better- informed citizens because political control of the media, and people do not know the information that they find in the media or Internet is reliable or not. Idealism argues that â€Å"the most fundamental feature of society is social consciousness† (The Globalization of World politics, PP163). In short, idealism does not disregard the material forces such as media power, but the meaning of these material forces are not given by nature but driven by human interpretation. So, an idealist view of global media argues that people get their social consciousness not from natural truth, but from other people who create the information. For example, if the growing media monopolies and government deregulation have diminished the quantity, quality, and diversity of political content in the mass media, citizens never get the truth. Therefore, the globalization of media under government control can lead to worse- informed citizens. However, I think that the globalization of media can lead to better-informed citizens because it changes people’s perception and habits, and it also expands the horizons of people. According to the movie, â€Å"Global media for a global culture? † many years ago, there were no Asian people who knew the Christmas festival or Halloween, but these two western festivals have become two of the most popular festivals in China, Japan and Korea because the transnational media corporations came to Asia. As normative structure theory mentioned that â€Å"actors adhere to norms not only because of benefits and costs for doing so, but also because they are related to a range of self† (The Globalization of World politics, PP163). This is means the global media has an impact on culture, and these new beliefs not only constraint actors, they also constructed categories of meanings in their identities and interests, and define standards of appropriate conduct which can lead to better-informed citizens. Therefore, people can share similar culture and viewpoint which means the distance between the people become closer. People in some underdeveloped areas can become democratic and liberal, and we can easier understand each other. Furthermore, I agree with the statement that global media contributes to the creation of a global village because transnational media corporations are attempting to establish operations in nations around the world, and people share the same information, culture and worldview. Institutional isomorphism (such as transnational media corporations) raises issues of growing homogeneity in world politics, international community and socialization processes† (The Globalization of World politics, PP163). For example, America’s dominance in the entertainment industries (such as Disney, Time Warner) made it difficult for other cultures to produce and distribute their own cultural products. American popular culture, in addition, challenges authority and outm oded traditions. So, the media globalization affects the development of native culture and its people, especially the impact on teenagers. Teenagers in other nations have rejected their own cultural traditions. Instead, they want to wear American styles. Additionally, it is popular for people in other countries to sing in English rather than use their native tongue (â€Å"Globalization and Mass Media† P5). So, constructivists generally hold that identities shape interests (The Globalization of World politics, PP163). We know who we are because identities are social and are produced through interactions they can change. The global media change people’s identity, and the country is composed by the people, so the global media contributes to the creation of a global village. Therefore, â€Å"The internationalization of cultural business and cultural texts, as well as the remarkable worldwide proliferation of new communications technologies has undeniably influenced the global culture† (Hesmondhalgh, 2007:2). While global media contributes to the creation of a global village, it also creates social, political and security problems. Some people fear the globalization of media because although the Internet connects people on a global level, people can also use it to form small groups with diverse political agendas. For this reason, the Internet’s lack of centralized control makes some governments reluctant to let their citizens have Internet access. For example, Singapore, China, and Saudi Arabia attempt to censor sites for political and religious reasons. I think that governmental concern about how people will use the Internet is well founded: â€Å"some media and journalists wantonly distorted the political facts or add extreme rhetoric, which cause the citizen of the decline in trust in government. Many public-sphere liberals find a malaise in American democracy about declining voter participation and public mistrust and cynicism toward government† (Democratizing Global Media: One World, Many Struggles, Robert A. Hackett, PP12). Moreover, â€Å"critical political economists and anti-globalization activists identify Western-based transnational media and ‘the organization of global information flows along free-market lines’ as agents of domination, eroding the ability of states to protect â€Å"autonomous information spaces† (Waisbord and Morris 2001: ix). Therefore, global media have been criticized for homogenizing global culture by disrupting national traditions. The Web creates a chaotic marketplace of cultures that allows the development of cultural imperialism, rather than uniting the world into one large and homogeneous global village. So, it is very common and necessary to know that nationally organized media are subject to varying degree of political control in some countries. In conclusion, a key factor in Internet evolution is the ability of citizens to easily communicate with each other. Globalized media means that people can get information quickly and easily, and that it can lead to a global village where people share similarities and can create a more equal civilization. However, even though some people believe that the global media are enhancing the process of peace and democracy, it actually does not have completely transformative power. For example, the radical democrats endorse media role as â€Å"government watchdogs† and â€Å"public-sphere models† and they also expect a democratic media system to counteract power inequalities within the social order. Ultimately, global media has advantages and disadvantages, so we need more critical thinking about whether the information that we find in the media or Internet is reliable or not. Work cited David Held and Anthony McGrew, The Global Transformations Reader, UK: Polity Press, PP 216, 2000 McChesney Robert, â€Å"Global Media Neoliberalism and Imperialism Monthly Review†, 52. 0, P. 1, 2001 March Peterson, David, â€Å"The Global Media: An Interview with Edward S. Herman and Robert W. McChesney. ZMagazine†, 1997 June Robert A. Hackett, Democratizing Global Media: One World, Many Struggles, PP12 Siochru, S. O. Social consequences of the globalization of the media and communication sector: Some strategic considerations, Geneva: International L abour Office, 2004 Klotzer, Charles L, â€Å"The 10 Best-Censored Stories: Key Issues that the Mass Media Largely Ignore†, St. Louis Journalism Review, 34. 270, P. 30, 2004 October Kellner, D. Theorizing Globalization† in Sociological Theory, pp285-305, 2002 Bagdikian, 2000; McChesney, 1999; Herman Chomsky, 1988 Ingmar Zielke, Neoliberalism, Media and Globalization Western Media Policies in the 1980s and their Implications, 2010, Gottingen Peter Singer, One World the ethics of globalization, United States of America: Yale University press, one community John Baylis, Steve Smith and Patricia Owens, The Globalization of World Politics, PP163, Oxford University Press Inc. New York 2011, ———————– Wang 6 How to cite Global Media and Constructivism, Essay examples

Ecological and Socio-Economic the Damages †Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: What Is the Ecological and Socio-Economic the Damages? Answer: Introduction The BP oil spill is considered as the major marine oil spill in US history. The reason behind the oil spill was an explosion on the Deepwater Horizon offshore oil platform. It was manifested that Macondo well spilled about five million barrels of oil and the Gulf of Mexico was poured with about 4.2 million barrels. Because of this incident, the ecological balance of this area has been immensely disturbed, and it has a great impact on the environment. Besides this, the incident has significant financial implication, and due to this event, the BP oil company has faced a substantial amount of monetary losses (Briggs, 2011). Hence, it is witnessed that this event has a considerable amount of ecological and socio-economic damage. Moreover, it raises the questions about the social accountability or environmental reporting of the business organization. Beside this, it also raises the question on the role of regulators who are basically the politicians about this particular matter. Moreover, the undertaken article throws light on the motivational factors which influence the regulators to bring the policy and law to protect the environment (Bard, 2015). Points of discussion Financial implication In the year 2011, income statement was released by BP for the fourth quarter for the year 2010. The statement depicted the tax charge of amount US$40.9 billion of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. It included US$17.7 billion costs incurred effectively for the year 2010. The charges related to the incident was treated as the non-operating items and deducted from the taxable incomes (Barron, 2011). An escrow account of amount US$20 billion was included, and it was established by the sale of the United States assets over the next three and half year. In order to satisfy the legitimate claims, escrow account was made available by the Gulf Coast Claims Facility, local response costs, final judgements in the litigation settlements, cost related to damages of natural sources and local responses costs. BP decided to fund up for the ten-year research program for an amount of $500 million after studying the impact of the Mexico Gulf oil spill and associated response on the shoreline and marine ecosystems. An amount of $360 million was also decided to be funded by the group which is the cost related to the Louisiana barrier island project. However, the charge does not depict any amount related to the penalties and fines, except for the cost arising from the strict liability comes under the Clean Water Act. BP argued that it was not possible to show a number of additional amounts (Tretkoff, 2011). Role of regulators and motivations of politicians as regulators The major responsibilities which are illustrated by the government are depicted to be involved in the form of managing and regulating the direction of the overall behavior of the institutions and the individuals. The formation of the business institution and also the involvement of the internal standard setting are depicted by the involvement of the key activities which comprises of the self-regulatory policies (Jones and Plourde, 2011). Therefore, it is evident that the critical and the string policing characteristics are formed in the structure of the self-regulatory controls and also the measurement of the responsibilities cannot be appropriately abdicated in the case of the health and the public safety measures. Therefore, the roles of the regulator and the motivation of the politicians in the form of the regulators are provided in the following points: - Logic regarding the self-policing: The regulations and the rules are constructed for the purpose of providing the appropriate management of the conduct in an appropriate way. The support for the key standard settings is a part responsible for the self-policing, and also it is considered in the form of the revenues. The restrictions regarding the unregulated self-policing: The firms self-policing are not considered in the form of the replacements for the regulators and also it helps in providing the key services as it is considered to be the most important for the risk examinations (Henkel, Sigel and Taylor, 2014). Ecological and socio-economic damages The spilling of oil which is undertaken by the BP is creating a significant impact on the environment, and also the economic breakdown is depicted to be undertaken. This incident is depicted to be affecting the various categories of the ecosystem services, and also the protection of the environment rules and the values are not appropriately maintained for which the incident took place. The damages made were reflecting the impacts that were on the firm in the form of the economic breakdown (Geneletti, 2013). Apart from this, the reflection is also made regarding the restoration of the values, and also the conduct is simply undertaken in the form of the damage areas. The prevention is becoming most essential for the purpose of creating balance in the ecosystem, and also the physical damages must be recovered for the purpose of establishing the true social values. After all, the extreme classical of the social damages were demonstrated in the form of charging BP for not demonstrating th e damages in an appropriate way. In this situation, the accounting advantages must be gained by the firm in the form of deducting the assessable income and also the BP Limited must demonstrate the situation to the partners for the implications which will be made in this situation (Hatch, 2005). Environmental reporting and accounting The oil spill in the Deep Water Horizon depicted that strict rules, regulations, and policies need to be implemented in the oil and gas industry in the United States. The incident adversely affected the people and environment of the surrounding. The government should focus on the rules and regulations in order to ensure the safety of the people and environment. The policies should be related to the environment protection and health safety and protection. BP was responsible for the incident that affected the area (Kiefer, Kauffman and Long, 2011). The annual report should disclose significant information related to the environment and financial information. The ecosystems trends and up to date status should be there in reports in order to ensure than the stakeholders have a reliable ecological environment, safe from any accident and other information such as collaborating with public institutions, research bodies, etc. The ecological and social reporting with respect to the impacts an d dependencies on the ecosystem services. All information related to the environmental revenues, liabilities, and charges, calculation methods and potential gas between estimated and latter externalities ("NOAA Deepwater Horizon/BP Oil Spill Response," 2011). Analysis As per the analysis is represented, the environmental clauses must be stringent enough to face the challenges of the assessing the ecological and the socio-economic damages. The significant replacement approaches must be conducted for the purpose of determining the values and also the explanation regarding the climate and also the coastal marshes, and also the hurricane protection can be easily cultural and recreational cost approaches must be made (Kurtz, 2013). Apart from this, disclosures must be appropriately conducted for reducing the environmental impact and also the information must be appropriately disclosed to the stakeholders. The article shows that the negligence of the business organizations in implementing adequate prevention measures for avoiding environmental disaster may badly impact on the environment and can damage ecological balance. As the concerned company BP oil did not apply required safety measures and the company did not have sufficient management skill to ha ndle the adverse situation the incident took place. In this matter inadequate government control is also accountable, because due to scanty of legislation, the organizations are encouraged to operate business without proper safety measures. Hence, the government should introduce laws that enable to protect the environment from the risks growing from business operations. Conclusion Deepwater Horizon oil spill has a significant impact on the economy of the country as due to this incident large amount of natural resource of the country had been drained into the sea. The concerned company BP has to face substantial financial loss. Besides this, it has a substantial environmental impact. It raises the question about the social accountability of the organization as well as the role of the regulators who are responsible for implementing appropriate laws, rules and regulations to control and measure the business organizations preventive initiations to avoid this types of hazardous incidents (McCay, 2011). Recommendations The government should develop more effective laws with useful rules and regulations and implement on the business organizations to avoid this type of situation in future that damages the ecological balance of the region as well cause of excessive financial loss. The concerned organizations which are in risk prone zone have to apply adequate preventive measures to evade this types of the incident in future. Besides this, the organizations must have the system that improves the alertness for this types of situation in future so that the remedies can be availed on time. The government has to implement more stringent laws to protect the environment from the business activities of the organization. References Briggs, W. (2011). Deepwater Horizon Response Unified Area Command Transition Framework.International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings, 2011(1), p.abs264. Geneletti, D. (2013). Ecosystem services in environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental assessment.Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 40, pp.1-2. Henkel, J., Sigel, B. and Taylor, C. (2014). Oiling rates and condition indices of shorebirds on the northern Gulf of Mexico following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.Journal of Field Ornithology, 85(4), pp.408-420. Jones, K. and Plourde, K. (2011). Deepwater Horizon: Using Branch Action Plans to Improve Large Incident Responses.International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings, 2011(1), p.abs409. Kiefer, K., Kauffman, M. and Long, J. (2011). International Assistance: Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill Response.International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings, 2011(1), p.abs274. Kurtz, R. (2013). Oil Spill Causation and the Deepwater Horizon Spill.Review of Policy Research, 30(4), pp.366-380. Tretkoff, E. (2011). Formation of oil and gas intrusions after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union, 92(27), p.232. Bard, S. (2015). Podcast: The 5th anniversary of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.Science. Barron, M. (2011). Ecological Impacts of the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Implications for Immunotoxicity.Toxicologic Pathology,40(2), 315-320. McCay, D. (2011). Modeling Subsurface Oil Transport and Concentrations during the Response to the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill.International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings,2011(1), abs419. NOAA Deepwater Horizon/BP Oil Spill Response. (2011).Choice Reviews Online,48(08), 48-4510-48-4510. Hatch, M. (2005).Environmental policymaking. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press.